[Ketamine: a neuropsychotropic drug with an innovative mechanism of action]. / La kétamine : un neuropsychotrope au mécanisme d'action innovant.

Ketamine, a non-competitive antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate-glutamate receptor (R-NMDA), has a rapid (from 24 h post-dose) and prolonged (up to one week) antidepressant effect in treatment resistant depression and in rodent models of anxiety/depression. Arguments regarding its cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying its antidepressant activity mainly come from animal studies. However, debates still persist on the structural remodeling of frontocortical/hippocampal neurons and the role of excitatory/inhibitory neurotransmitters involved in its behavioral effect. Neurochemical and behavioral changes are maintained 24 h after administration of ketamine, well beyond its plasma elimination half-life. The glutamatergic pyramidal cells of the medial prefrontal cortex are primarily implicated in the therapeutic effects of ketamine. Advances in knowledge of the consequences of R-NMDA blockade allowed to specify the underlying mechanisms involving the activation of AMPA glutamate receptors, which triggers a cascade of intracellular events dependent on the mechanistic target of rapamycin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and synaptic protein synthesis facilitating synaptic plasticity (number of dendritic spines, synaptogenesis). This review focuses on abnormalities of neurotransmitter systems involved in major depressive disorders, their potential impact on neural circuitry and beneficial effects of ketamine. Recent preclinical data pave the way for future studies to better clarify the mechanism of action of fast-acting antidepressant drugs for the development of novel, more effective therapies.

Title: La kétamine : un neuropsychotrope au mécanisme d'action innovant. Abstract: La kétamine, un antagoniste non compétitif du récepteur N-méthyl-D-aspartate (R-NMDA) du glutamate, possède un effet antidépresseur rapide (dès 24 h post-dose) et prolongé (jusqu'à une semaine) dans la dépression résistante au traitement par des antidépresseurs « classiques ¼ et dans les modèles rongeurs d'anxiété/dépression. Les arguments concernant ses mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires sous-tendant son activité antidépressive viennent principalement d'études animales. Des débats persistent cependant sur le remodelage structurel des neurones frontocorticaux/hippocampiques et sur le rôle des neurotransmetteurs excitateurs/inhibiteurs impliqués dans cet effet comportemental observé chez l'animal. Les modifications neurochimiques et comportementales se maintiennent 24 h après l'administration de la kétamine, bien au-delà de sa demi-vie d'élimination plasmatique. L'avancée des connaissances sur les conséquences du blocage du R-NMDA permet de préciser les mécanismes sous-jacents impliquant (i) l'activation des récepteurs AMPA du glutamate, qui déclenche une cascade d'évènements intracellulaires dépendants de la cible mécanistique de la rapamycine, (ii) le facteur neurotrophique dérivé du cerveau et (iii) la synthèse de protéines synaptiques facilitant la plasticité synaptique (nombre d'épines dendritiques, synaptogenèse). Les cellules pyramidales glutamatergiques du cortex préfrontal médian sont principalement impliquées dans les effets thérapeutiques de la kétamine. La présente revue se concentre sur les anomalies des systèmes de neurotransmetteurs associées aux troubles dépressifs caractérisés, leur impact potentiel sur les circuits neuronaux et les effets bénéfiques de la kétamine. Les résultats d'études précliniques récentes devraient aider à orienter les futures études pour mieux préciser le mécanisme d'action des antidépresseurs d'action rapide et permettre ainsi le développement de nouvelles thérapies plus efficaces.

Investigating the role of Prefrontal Neurons in cognitive tasks through Fiber Photometry and Adapted Barnes Maze Protocols

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is essential in the execution of cognitive tasks, however very little is known on how these neurons are modulated during specific tasks and which subtype of neurons are responsible for so. Therego, with the intention of addressing this issue, we recorded mPFC gabaergic and glutamatergic activation patterns through fiber photometry (FIP) in mice, while simultaneously performing the Barnes Maze (BM) cognitive task (4 day behavioral trial). In addition, an altered structural and procedural protocol for BM was validated in this study due to necessary modifications allowing FIP and BM to happen simultaneously. A successful protocol validation was followed by our preliminary results, which showed that both glutamatergic and gabaergic neurons presented significant change in activation intensity and number of events in specific contexts throughout the task days. In addition, when stratified and crossed with BM performance parameters, such as latency to complete tasks and adopted strategy, glutamatergic and gabaergic neurons presented a significant decline in both activation patterns and number of activation events throughout the days. This data suggest not only an important role of glutamatergic and gabaergic mPFC neurons in learning, memory and decision making, but also that activation patterns of each of these groups may serve as markers for cognitive progression and/or dysfunction. KEY-WORDS: Memory, Learning, Decision Making, Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC), Fiber Photometry (FIP), Barnes Maze (BM), Glutamatergic, Gabaergic, Neuronal Activity, Neuronal Activation Patterns, Neuronal Dynamics.

O córtex pré-frontal medial (mPFC) é essencial na execução de tarefas cognitivas, no entanto, pouco se sabe sobre como esses neurônios são modulados durante tarefas específicas e qual subtipo de neurônios é responsável por isso. Portanto, com a intenção de abordar essa questão, registramos os padrões de ativação de neurônios gabaérgicos e glutamatérgicos do mPFC por meio de fotometria de fibra (FIP) em camundongos, enquanto realizávamos simultaneamente a tarefa cognitiva do Labirinto de Barnes (BM) (ensaio comportamental de 4 dias). Além disso, um protocolo estrutural e procedimental alterado para o BM foi validado neste estudo devido a modificações necessárias que permitiram a realização simultânea de FIP e BM. Uma validação bem-sucedida do protocolo foi seguida pelos nossos resultados preliminares, que mostraram que tanto os neurônios glutamatérgicos quanto os gabaérgicos apresentaram mudanças significativas na intensidade de ativação e no número de eventos em contextos específicos ao longo dos dias da tarefa. Além disso, quando estratificados e cruzados com parâmetros de desempenho do BM, como latência para completar as tarefas e estratégia adotada, os neurônios glutamatérgicos e gabaérgicos apresentaram uma diminuição significativa nos padrões de ativação e no número de eventos de ativação ao longo dos dias. Esses dados sugerem não apenas um papel importante dos neurônios glutamatérgicos e gabaérgicos do mPFC na aprendizagem, memória e tomada de decisões, mas também que os padrões de ativação de cada um desses grupos podem servir como marcadores de progressão e/ou disfunção cognitiva. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Memória, Aprendizagem, Tomada de Decisões, Córtex Pré-Frontal Medial (mPFC), Fotometria de Fibra (FIP), Labirinto de Barnes (BM), Glutamatérgico, Gabaérgico, Atividade Neuronal, Padrões de Ativação Neuronal, Dinâmica Neuronal.

Use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of nonfluent primary progressive aphasia: a case report / Uso da estimulação magnética transcraniana no tratamento da afasia progressiva primária não fluente: um relato de caso

ABSTRACT Primary progressive aphasia comprises a group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by progressive speech and language dysfunction. Neuroimaging (structural and functional), biomarkers, and neuropsychological assessments allow for early diagnosis. However, there is no pharmacological treatment for the disease. Speech and language therapy is the main rehabilitation strategy. In this case report, we describe a female patient diagnosed with nonfluent primary progressive aphasia who underwent sessions of high-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and showed improvement in depression scores, naming tasks in oral and written speech, and comprehension tasks in oral and written discourse.

RESUMO As afasias progressivas primárias (APP) representam um grupo de doenças neurodegenerativas caracterizadas por disfunção progressiva da fala e da linguagem. A neuroimagem (estrutural e funcional), os biomarcadores e as avaliações neuropsicológicas permitem o diagnóstico precoce. No entanto, não há tratamento farmacológico para a doença. A terapia fonoaudiológica é a principal estratégia de reabilitação. Neste relato de caso, descrevemos uma paciente com diagnóstico de APP não fluente que foi submetida a sessões de estimulação magnética transcraniana de alta frequência no córtex pré-frontal dorsolateral esquerdo e apresentou melhora nos escores de depressão, nas tarefas de nomeação da fala oral e escrita e nas tarefas de compreensão da fala oral e escrita.

Evaluation of structural changes in orbitofrontal cortex in relation to medication overuse in migraine patients: a diffusion tensor imaging study / Avaliação das mudanças estruturais no córtex orbitofrontal em relação ao uso excessivo de medicamentos em pacientes com migrânea: um estudo de imagem por tensor de difusão

Abstract Background: Migraine is a prevalent neurological disease that leads to severe headaches. Moreover, it is the commonest among the primary headaches that cause medication overuse headache (MOH). The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is one of the structures most associated with medication overuse. Objective: To determine microstructural changes in the OFC among migraine patients who developed MOH, through the diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) technique. Methods: Fifty-eight patients who had been diagnosed with migraine based on the Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-III-B) were included in the study. Patients were sub-classified into two groups, with and without MOH, based on the MOH criteria of ICHD-III-B. DTI was applied to each patient. The OFC fractional anisotropy (FA), and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values of the two groups were compared. Results: The mean age of all the patients was 35.98±7.92 years (range: 18-65), and 84.5% (n=49) of them were female. The two groups, with MOH (n=25) and without (n=33), were alike in terms of age, gender, family history, migraine with or without aura and duration of illness. It was found that there was a significant difference in FA values of the left OFC between the two groups (0.32±0.01 versus 0.29±0.01; p=0.04). Conclusions: An association was found between MOH and changes to OFC microstructure. Determination of neuropathology and factors associated with medication overuse among migraine patients is crucial in terms of identifying the at-risk patient population and improving proper treatment strategies specific to these patients.

RESUMO Introdução: A migrânea é uma doença neurológica prevalente que causa fortes dores de cabeça. Além disso, é a mais comum entre as cefaleias primárias que causam cefaleia por uso excessivo de medicamentos (CUEM). O córtex orbitofrontal (OF) é uma das estruturas mais associadas ao uso excessivo de medicamentos. Objetivo: Determinar alterações microestruturais no córtex OF em pacientes com migrânea que desenvolveram CUEM, por meio da técnica de imagem por tensor de difusão (ITD). Métodos: Cinquenta e oito pacientes com diagnóstico de migrânea, com base na Classificação das Cefaleias (ICHD-III-B), foram incluídos no estudo. Os pacientes foram subclassificados em dois grupos, com e sem CUEM, com base nos critérios de CUEM da ICHD-III-B. A ITD foi aplicada a cada paciente. Os valores de anisotropia fracionada OFC (AF) e coeficiente de difusão aparente (CDA) dos dois grupos foram comparados. Resultados: A média de idade de todos os pacientes foi de 35,98±7,92 anos (variação: 18‒65), sendo 84,5% (n=49) do sexo feminino. Os dois grupos, com CUEM (n=25) e sem (n=33), são semelhantes em termos de idade, sexo, história familiar, migrânea com ou sem aura e duração da doença. Verificou-se que houve diferença significativa nos valores de AF do córtex OF esquerdo entre os dois grupos (0,32±0,01 versus 0,29±0,01; p=0,04). Conclusões: Foi encontrada associação entre o CUEM e as alterações na microestrutura do córtex OF. A determinação da neuropatologia e dos fatores associados ao uso excessivo de medicamentos entre pacientes com migrânea é crucial para identificar a população de pacientes em risco e melhorar as estratégias de tratamento adequadas específicas para esses pacientes.

Impact cérébral structurel et fonctionnel de la Clozapine chez les patients souffrant de schizophrénie : revue systématique des études longitudinales en neuroimagerie.

OBJECTIF: L'objectif de cette revue est d'identifier les corrélats anatomo-fonctionnels cérébraux lors d'un traitement par clozapine (CLZ) ainsi que les marqueurs anatomo-fonctionnels prédictifs de la réponse à la CLZ. MÉTHODES: Nous avons réalisé une revue systématique de la littérature avec les bases de données MEDLINE et Web of Science afin d'identifier et d'examiner toutes les études longitudinales en neuroimagerie investiguant l'impact cérébral de la CLZ. RÉSULTATS: 30 études ont été incluses et analysées. La CLZ induit une diminution du volume et de la perfusion dans les noyaux gris centraux chez les patients répondeurs. Un plus grand volume de substance grise et perfusion dans ces structures avant l'instauration de la CLZ étaient associés à une meilleure réponse au traitement. La diminution de volume et de perfusion au niveau du cortex préfrontal (CPF) est observée malgré l'instauration de CLZ mais de façon moins importante chez les patients sous CLZ que chez les patients sous antipsychotiques typiques. Un plus grand volume au niveau du CPF avant l'instauration de la CLZ est associé à une meilleure réponse clinique dans la majorité des études. Enfin, la CLZ semble induire une réduction des altérations au niveau de la substance blanche. CONCLUSION: Les corrélats anatomo-fonctionnels de la CLZ différent de ceux des autres antipsychotiques avec une action spécifique de la CLZ au niveau des ganglions de la base et du CPF pouvant participer à sa supériorité en termes de réponse clinique. Plusieurs données cliniques et d'imagerie conduisent à l'hypothèse d'un meilleur pronostic associé à une instauration plus rapide de la CLZ.

[Neural circuits and neurotransmitters involved in the effects of psychoactive drugs - State of the art with a focus on cocaine]. / Circuits neuronaux et neuromédiateurs impliqués dans les effets des drogues psychoactives ­ État de l'art avec un focus sur la cocaïne.

Addiction is a chronic disease that has serious consequences, both in terms of public health and economy. Clear characteristics distinguish recreational and controlled use from addiction. Thus, today, addiction includes the notions of compulsive drug use, associated with a loss of control over consumption, leading to craving. When consumption is stopped, withdrawal symptoms may emerge: a negative emotional state, cognitive problems and physical symptoms with some products (alcohol and opiates, for example). Relapse episodes may occur during this withdrawal period, countering the negative effects of withdrawal. Relapse episodes can also be observed after long periods of abstinence. They can be precipitated by re-exposure to the context in which the drugs were taken, or by stress. Regardless of the stage of addiction (e.g., development of the addictive behavior, or relapse) changes in brain function and structure can be observed. Some brain structures are therefore modified, such as the prefrontal cortex, where several neuroadaptations have been identified. Some of these changes are described in this paper.

TITLE: Circuits neuronaux et neuromédiateurs impliqués dans les effets des drogues psychoactives ­ État de l'art avec un focus sur la cocaïne. ABSTRACT: L'addiction est une maladie chronique qui engendre de lourdes conséquences, à la fois en termes de santé publique et au niveau économique. Des caractéristiques claires distinguent bien l'usage récréatif et contrôlé, de l'addiction. Ainsi, aujourd'hui, l'addiction inclut les notions de recherche compulsive de la drogue, associées à une perte de contrôle sur sa prise, favorisant l'émergence d'un désir persistant et irrépressible pour la drogue (appelé craving). À l'arrêt de la consommation, des symptômes de sevrage peuvent émerger : un état émotionnel négatif, des troubles cognitifs et des symptômes physiques avec certains produits (alcool et opiacés, par exemple). Les épisodes de rechute peuvent survenir au cours de cette période de sevrage pour contrer les effets négatifs du sevrage. De tels épisodes peuvent aussi être observés après de longues périodes d'abstinence. Ils peuvent être précipités par une réexposition au contexte dans lequel les prises de drogues s'effectuaient, ou encore par un stress. Quel que soit le stade auquel on se place (e.g., mise en place de l'addiction, ou rechute), des changements dans les fonctions et la structure du cerveau peuvent être observés. Certaines structures cérébrales sont donc modifiées, comme le cortex préfrontal, où plusieurs neuroadaptations ont été mises en évidence. Certaines de ces modifications sont revisitées dans cet article.

Escala De Observación Clínica Para Valorar La Tercera Unidad Funcional De La Teoría De Luria: Eocl-1 / Scale Of Clinical Observation To Valuate The Third Functional Unit Of The Luria Theory: Eocl-1

Resumen El modelo de organización cerebral de Luria propone la interacción de tres unidades funcionales para comprender el trabajo que realiza el cerebro humano. La primera de ellas se encarga de la regulación del tono y la vigilia. La segunda de recibir, procesar y almacenar la información. La tercera, y de central interés de la investigación, se encarga de programar, ejecutar y verificar la actividad mental. Para valorar esta teoría se han desarrollado una serie de test neuropsicológicos experimentales, no obstante, no se ha propuesto una escala que, en base a los preceptos teóricos de la tercera unidad funcional, permita valorarla basada en la observación clínica de las conductas de la vida diaria del ser humano. En esta investigación se propone una escala que permita al clínico valorar las habilidades mentales asociadas con la capacidad de programar, ejecutar y verificar la forma más compleja de actividad mental; integradas en la tercera unidad funcional de Luria. Se discute la propuesta realizada, en base al beneficio que se genera el contar con una escala que permitirá valorar esta teoría, en los diferentes ambientes donde se desenvuelve el individuo mediante la acción de las habilidades cerebrales de la tercera unidad funcional.

Abstract Luria's brain organization model proposes the interaction of three functional units to understand the work performed by the human brain. The first of them is responsible for the regulation of tone and wakefulness. The second one to receive, process and store the information. The third, and of central interest of the investigation, is responsible for programming, executing and verifying mental activity. To evaluate this theory, a series of experimental neuropsychological tests have been developed, however, a scale has not been proposed that, based on the theoretical precepts on the third functional unit, allows to assess it based on the behaviors of the daily life of the human being. This research proposes a scale that will allow the clinician to assess the mental abilities associated with the ability to program, execute and verify the most complex form of mental activity; integrated in the third functional unit of Luria. The proposal is discussed, based on the benefit that is generated by having a scale that will allow to assess this theory, in the different environments where the individual develops through the action of the cerebral abilities of the third functional unit.

Co-Expression Network Analysis Identifies Possible Hub Genes in Aging of the Human Prefrontal Cortex / Análisis de redes de coexpresión identifica posibles genes clave en el envejecimiento de la corteza prefrontal humana / Análise de redes de co-expressão identifica possíveis genes chave no envelhecimento do córtex pré-frontal humano

Abstract Introduction : Aging is the main risk factor for the development of chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. The central nervous system is particularly susceptible to progressive functional deterioration associated with age, among the brain regions the prefrontal cortex (PFC) has one of the highest involvements. Transcriptomics studies of this brain region have identified the decrease in synaptic function and activation of neuroglia cells as fundamental characteristics of the aging process. The aim of this study was to identify hub genes in the transcriptomic deregulation in the PFC aging to advance in the knowledge of this process. Materials and methods : A gene co-expression analysis was carried out for 45 people 60 to 80 years old compared with 38 people 20 to 40 years old. The networks were visualized and analyzed using Cytoscape; citoHubba was used to determine which genes had the best topological characteristics in the co-expression networks. Results : Five genes with high topological characteristics were identified. Four of them -HPCA, CACNG3, CA10, PLPPR4- were repressed and one was over-expressed -CRYAB-. Conclusion: The four repressed genes are expressed preferentially in neurons and regulate the synaptic function and the neuronal plasticity, while the overexpressed gene is typical of glial cells and is expressed as a response to neuronal damage, facilitating myelination and neuronal regeneration.

Resumen Introducción : el envejecimiento es el principal factor de riesgo para el desarrollo de enfermedades crónicas como el cáncer, la diabetes, el Parkinson y el Alzheimer. El sistema nervioso central es particularmente susceptible al deterioro funcional progresivo asociado con la edad, entre las regiones cerebrales con mayor compromiso se encuentra la corteza prefrontal (CPF). Estudios de transcriptómica de esta región han identificado como características fundamentales del proceso de envejecimiento la disminución de la función sináptica y la activación de las células de la neuroglia. No es claro cuáles son las causas iniciales, ni los mecanismos moleculares subyacentes a estas alteraciones. El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar genes clave en la desregulación transcriptómica en el envejecimiento de la CPF para avanzar en el conocimiento de este proceso. Materiales y métodos : se hizo un análisis de coexpresión de genes de los transcriptomas de 45 personas entre 60 y 80 años con el de 38 personas entre 20 y 40 años. Las redes fueron visualizadas y analizadas usando Cytoscape, se usó citoHubba para determinar qué genes tenían las mejores características topológicas en las redes de coexpresión. Resultados : se identificaron cinco genes con características topológicas altas. Cuatro de ellos -HPCA, CACNG3, CA10, PLPPR4- reprimidos y uno sobreexpresado -CRYAB-. Conclusión : los cuatro genes reprimidos se expresan preferencialmente en neuronas y regulan la función sináptica y la plasticidad neuronal, mientras el gen sobreexpresado es típico de células de la glía y se expresa como respuesta a daño neuronal facilitando la mielinización y la regeneración neuronal.

Resumo Introdução : o envelhecimento é o principal fator de risco pra o desenvolvimento de doenças crónicas como o câncer, a diabetes, o Parkinson e o Alzheimer. O sistema nervoso central é particularmente susceptível ao deterioro funcional progressivo associado à idade, uma das regiões do cérebro com maior compromisso é o pré-frontal (CPF). Estudos de transcritoma desta região têm identificado como características fundamentais do processo de envelhecimento a diminuição da função sináptica e ativação das células da neuroglia. Não é claro quais são as causas iniciais, nem os mecanismos moleculares subjacentes a estas alterações. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar genes chave na desregulação transcritoma no envelhecimento da CPF para avançar no conhecimento deste processo. Materiais e métodos : se fez uma análise de co-expressão de genes dos transcritomas de 45 pessoas entre 60 e 80 anos com o de 38 pessoas entre 20 e 40 anos. As redes foram visualizadas e analisadas usando Cytoscape, usou-se citoHubba para determinar que genes tinham as melhores características topológicas nas redes de co-expressão. Resultados : identificaram-se cinco genes com características topológicas altas. Quatro deles -HPCA, CACNG3, CA10, PLPPR4- reprimidos e um superexpresso -CRYAB-. Conclusão : os quatro genes reprimidos se expressam preferencialmente em neurônios e regulam a função sináptica e plasticidade neuronal, enquanto o gene superexpresso é típico de células da glia e se expressa como resposta ao dano neuronal facilitado a mielinização e a regeneração neuronal.

Alterações de neuropsicológicas decorrentes de substâncias psicoativas: prejuízos cognitivos e implicações para o tratamento / Neuropsychological alterations from psychoactive substances use: cognitive impairment and implications for treatment

O consumo abusivo de substâncias psicoativas (SPA) está associado a prejuízos no funcionamento das áreas frontais, especificamente do córtex pré-frontal sendo de grande importância o entendimento e descrição das alterações comportamentais, emocionais e cognitivas visando diagnóstico bem como prever o curso de tratamento adequado através da investigação neuropsicológica. Este trabalho teve o objetivo de identificar quais os impactos neuropsicológicos em decorrência do uso abusivo de substâncias psicoativas e analisar de que forma esses prejuízos influenciam no tratamento da dependência de substâncias psicoativas. A partir dos artigos analisados foi possível identificar a importância da avaliação neuropsicológica para o diagnóstico prognóstico do uso de substâncias psicoativas, além de identificar as alterações corticais (de córtex pré-frontal) afetadas pelo uso indevido de SPA bem como reflexo dessas alterações no desempenho e comportamento dos usuários de SPA. A realização desta pesquisa permite apontar que compreender esse contexto tem impacto direto no tratamento uma vez que as intervenções devem observar as capacidades e necessidades individuais dos usuários dos serviços de atenção objetivando a adesão ao tratamento e remissão dos sintomas. (AU)

Psychoactive substances (PAS) abusive use is associated with losses in the frontal areas function, specifically the prefrontal cortex. Thus the understanding and description of behavioral, emotional and cognitive changes aimed at diagnosing and predicting the course of appropriate treatment through neuropsychological research is of great importance. This work had the objective of identifying the Neuropsychological impacts from abusive use of psychoactive substances, and of examining how this impairment influences in the treatment of addiction to psychoactive substances. Based on the articles analyzed, it was possible to identify the importance of neuropsychological assessment for the prognostic diagnostic of psychoactive substances use, in addition to identify the cortical changes (prefrontal cortex) affected by the misuse of PAS, as well as the reflection of these changes on performance and behavior of PAS users. The results of this research show that understanding this context has a direct impact on the treatment, given the fact that interventions must observe the capacities and needs of individual users of care services aiming at adherence to treatment and remission of symptoms. (AU)

Acute exercise induced BDNF-TrkB signalling is intact in the prefrontal cortex of obese, glucose-intolerant male mice.

Obesity and glucose intolerance have been directly implicated in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. It is thought that diet-induced obesity causes a reduction in neuronal plasticity through a reduction in the neurotrophin: brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Previous work has demonstrated that acute exercise in healthy lean animals increases BDNF-TrkB signalling in the brain. However, if this effect is intact in a state of obesity remains unknown. The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of a single bout of exercise on BDNF-TrkB signalling in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus from obese glucose intolerant mice. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed a low-fat diet (10% kcals from lard) or a high-fat diet (HFD, 60% kcals from lard) for 7 weeks. A subset of HFD mice underwent an acute bout of exercise (treadmill running: 15 m/min, 5% incline, 120 min) followed by a recovery period of 2 h, after which point the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus were collected. The HFD increased body mass and glucose intolerance (p < 0.05). Prefrontal cortex from HFD mice demonstrated lower BDNF protein content, reduced phosphorylation of the BDNF receptor (TrkB), and its downstream effector cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), as well as PGC-1α and ERα) protein content (p < 0.05). Two hours following the acute exercise bout, TrkB and CREB phosphorylation as well as PGC-1α and ER-α protein content were recovered (p < 0.05). Our findings demonstrate for the first time that an acute bout of exercise can recover BDNF-TrkB signalling in the prefrontal cortex of obese mice.

Bases neurales de la toma de decisiones e implicación de las emociones en el proceso / The neural basis of the decision-making and emotional processes involved / Bases neurais da tomada de decisão e implicação das emoções neste processo

Este artículo se ha propuesto como una revisión de las investigaciones que han surgido en la última década en el campo de la neurociencia, y que se hayan relacionadas con la actividad neurobiológica y funcional de la toma de decisiones por parte del ser humano. Así, ha sido posible identificar y dar cuenta de las estructuras del sistema nervioso central que son claves en la comprensión de los procesos relacionados con la toma de decisiones, y a su vez han permitido establecer el rol de las emociones como influencia determinante en este proceso. De igual forma, las investigaciones han posibilitado conocer cómo se lleva a cabo la actividad de tomar decisiones en el cerebro, las relaciones entre las diversas regiones y cómo las emociones guían el resultado.Además, se ha llegado a destacar dos sistemas que explicarían el proceso de la toma de decisiones, uno asociado a la intuición (sistema práctico), donde se destaca la actividad metabólica de la amígdala cerebral y sus redes neuronales; otro que corresponde al razonamiento (sistema analítico), en el cual resalta la participación de las conexiones neuronales de la porción ventromedial del córtex prefrontal.

This paper has proposedas a review of the researchthat has been appearing in the last decade in the field of neuroscience, and the relationship with the neurobiological and functional activity of the human decision making. Therefore, it has been possible to identify and inform the key structures of the central nervous system in the comprehension of the related processes, and it has allowed to stablish the important influence of the emotion in this process. Also, the research hasallowed to know how the decision-making process has been referred in the brain, the relationship between the different brain regions and the emotion who led the outcome. Thus, there are two systems involved in the decision makingprocess; one related with the intuition (practical system), where the metabolic activity of the cerebral amygdala is remarked with their neural networks, and other related with reasoning (analytical system), in which, is important to note the involvement of the ventromedial portion of the prefrontal cortex.

Este artigo foi proposto como uma revisão das pesquisas que surgiram na última década no campo da neurociência, e que tem sido relacionada à atividade neurobiológica e funcional da tomada de decisão pelo ser humano. Assim, foi possível identificar e explicar as estruturas do sistema nervoso central que são fundamentais na compreensão dos processos relacionados à tomada de decisões e, por sua vez, permitiram estabelecer o papel das emoções como influência determinante nesse processo. Da mesma forma, a pesquisa permitiu saber como é a atividade de tomada de decisão no cérebro, as relações entre diferentes regiões e como as emoções orientam o resultado. Ademais, foram destacados dois sistemas que explicam o processo de tomada de decisão, um associado à intuição (sistema prático), que enfatiza a atividade metabólica da amígdala cerebral e suas redes neurais; outro correspondente ao raciocínio (sistema analítico), no qual as conexões neuronais da porção ventromedial do córtex pré-frontal são destacadas.

Clarificando el rol de la mentalización en el desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas / Clarifying the Role of Mentalization in the Development of Executive Functions

Resumen Las funciones ejecutivas son un grupo de habilidades que permiten la generación de respuestas adaptativas a las exigencias medioambientales. A su vez, la capacidad de mentalización refiere a la forma en que los humanos son capaces de discernir los estados mentales, intenciones y creencias de otros a través de la conducta observada. Este trabajo clarifica la forma en que debiéramos entender la relación entre estos dos conceptos. Tras revisar algunos de los aspectos más fundamentales de los conceptos en cuestión, se propone que la mentalización fundamenta, organiza y potencia el desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas, esto, en oposición a la tesis dominante de Carlson, Moses y Brenton (2002) que indica que las funciones ejecutivas son las que fundamentan el desarrollo de la habilidad de mentalización. Luego de revisar la actual evidencia empírica que apoya la alternativa propuesta, se exploran algunas aplicaciones de esta en el estudio de la naturaleza neurofisiológica de lo social, la naturaleza subjetiva de la conciencia y el dominio de la psicopatología.

Abstract Executive functions are a set of abilities that allow the production of adaptive behaviours to specific challenges from the environment. Mentalization refers to the way in which humans are able to discern mental states, intentions and beliefs of others through observed behaviour. This paper clarifies the way in which we should understand the relationship between these two concepts. After presenting some of the most fundamental aspects of these concepts, it is proposed that mentalization underlies, organizes, and enhances the development of executive functions, this, contrary to the dominant approach defended by Carlson Moses, and Brenton (2002) that suggests that executive functions underlie the development of mentalization. After reviewing empirical evidence for the defended alternative, the last section explores some of its applications in areas such as the study of the neurophysiological nature of the social, the subjective nature of consciousness, and the domain of psychopathology.

Easy methods to make the neuronavigated targeting of DLPFC accurate and routinely accessible for rTMS.

OBJECTIVES: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is the main stimulation target for rTMS treatment of depression. DLPFC is located in the middle frontal gyrus and corresponds to the lateral part of Brodmann Areas 9 and 46. Current methods to locate the DLPFC are either based on head landmarks that are inaccurate, or based on MRI-neuronavigation. Neuronavigated-methods are based either on standardized stereotactic coordinates translated to the individual patient or on brain landmarks requiring neuroanatomical skills for their identification. We developed a script automating the inclusion of already validated targets into patients' MRI, and also a new method to target DLPFC based on neuroanatomical landmarks. The present study aims to assess this new approach. METHODS: Four targets were compared on 40 hemispheres: three previously validated methods (2 using superimposition of standardized targets on patient MRI and 1 using neuroanatomical landmarks) and the new one presented here. Resulting targets were presented in the individual space and in stereotactic spaces (MNI and Talairach) with the main objective being to reach the middle frontal gyrus and BA9/46. Target dispersion and distances between targets were assessed. RESULTS: All targets were located in the middle frontal gyrus. Our proposed neuro-anatomical target was equivalent to or even better than the previously existing one if we consider the criteria of BA46 achievement and dispersion. CONCLUSION: The proposed neuroanatomical method and automation of the stereotactic method allow simple and reliable targeting of DLPFC for rTMS treatment.

Sleep and executive functions in older adults: A systematic review / Sono e funções executivas em idosos: revisão sistemática

ABSTRACT Introduction: A recent increase in studies suggests a role of age-related sleep changes in executive functions (EF). However, this relationship remains unclear and mixed results have emerged. Objective: To investigate how age-related sleep changes may play an important role in the extent to which healthy older adults exhibit decline in EF. Methods: A systematic strategy was employed to identify the available literature on age-related sleep changes and EF. Results: Of the 465 studies identified, 26 were included. Results suggest that multiple sleep parameters differ in the way they benefit or impair EF. Parameters such as greater wake after sleep onset and lower sleep efficiency, in addition to circadian fragmentation of sleep, showed more consistent results and are potentially correlated with worsening in EF measures. However, other results seem inconclusive. Conclusion: These findings were discussed based on the prefrontal circuitry vulnerability model, in which sleep has been identified as a beneficial factor for prefrontal cortex functioning and hence for EF, which relies mostly on this brain area and its related networks.

RESUMO Introdução: Um aumento recente de estudos sugere um papel das mudanças do sono relacionadas ao envelhecimento nas funções executivas (FE). Entretanto, essa relação ainda não é clara e resultados mistos têm emergido. Objetivo: Investigar como as mudanças do sono relacionadas à idade podem desempenhar um papel importante na medida em que idosos saudáveis apresentam um declínio nas FE. Métodos: Uma estratégia de revisão sistemática foi empregada para identificar a literatura disponível sobre mudanças no sono relacionadas ao envelhecimento e FE. Resultados: Dos 465 estudos identificados, 26 foram incluídos. Os resultados sugerem que múltiplos parâmetros do sono diferem na forma como beneficiam ou comprometem as FE. Parâmetros como maiores despertares após o início do sono e baixa eficiência do sono, além da fragmentação circadiana do sono, mostraram resultados mais consistentes e potencialmente se correlacionaram com a piora nas medidas de FE. Contudo, outros resultados parecem inconclusivos. Conclusão: Esses achados foram discutidos baseadamente no modelo de vulnerabilidade pré-frontal, no qual o sono tem sido apontado como um fator benéfico para o funcionamento do córtex pré-frontal e, consequentemente, para as FE que têm como substrato principal essa área cerebral e regiões relacionadas.

La impulsividad y su asociación con la inclinación de la frente / Impulsivity and its association with the slant of the forehead

Avances en embriología, genética o neuroimagen, están ayudando a discernir posibles correlaciones entre estructuras del rostro, cerebro y personalidad. Una conducta que ha sido objeto de numerosas investigaciones es la impulsiva, de la que han surgido distintas conceptualizaciones con cierta controversia etiológica. En el presente trabajo estudiamos si el rostro refleja de manera objetiva el nivel de impulsividad. Para ello, se utilizó en población adulta (N=33), la dimensión Búsqueda de Novedad del Inventario de Temperamento y Carácter-Revisado de Cloninger, la Escala de Impulsividad de Barratt (BIS-11) y la Escala de Impulsividad Estado (EIE). En el rostro se midió el grado de inclinación de la frente hacia atrás, resultando una asociación positiva con las 3 puntuaciones psicométricas. Tres jueces evaluaron visualmente el nivel de inclinación de la frente. Se obtuvo un alto acuerdo entre ellos, así como una alta correlación con la medida objetiva de inclinación. Aunque la muestra es reducida, los datos ofrecen una aproximación al objetivo de estudio.

Advances in embryology, genetics and neuroimaging are helping to discern possible correlations between facial structures, brain and personality. A behavior that has been the subject of much research is impulsiveness,where different conceptualizations have arisen with some etiological controversy. Objectifying the possibility of different levels of impulsivity in the face is studied.Foran adult sample (N =33),the Novelty Seeking dimension of Temperament and Character-Revised by Cloninger,the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) and Impulsiveness Scale State (EIE) were used. In the forehead the degree of inclination front to back was measured, resulting in a positive association with the 3 psychometric scores. Three judges evaluated the level of inclination of the forehead, resulting in a high reliability and a high correlation with the objective measurement of inclination. Although the sample is small, the data provides an objective approach to the study of the variable analyzed.

[Gap junctions: A new therapeutic target in major depressive disorder?]. / Les jonctions gap: une nouvelle cible thérapeutique pour le traitement des troubles dépressifs majeurs?

Major depressive disorder is a multifactorial chronic and debilitating mood disease with high lifetime prevalence and is associated with excess mortality, especially from cardiovascular diseases and through suicide. The treatments of this disease with tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors are poorly tolerated and those that selectively target serotonin and norepinephrine re-uptake are not effective in all patients, showing the need to find new therapeutic targets. Post-mortem studies of brains from patients with major depressive disorders described a reduced expression of the gap junction-forming membrane proteins connexin 30 and connexin 43 in the prefrontal cortex and the locus coeruleus. The use of chronic unpredictable stress, a rodent model of depression, suggests that astrocytic gap junction dysfunction contributes to the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder. Chronic treatments of rats with fluoxetine and of rat cultured cortical astrocytes with amitriptyline support the hypothesis that the upregulation of gap junctional intercellular communication between brain astrocytes could be a novel mechanism for the therapeutic effect of antidepressants. In conclusion, astrocytic gap junctions are emerging as a new potential therapeutic target for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder.

Deep TMS on alcoholics: effects on cortisolemia and dopamine pathway modulation. A pilot study.

The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis and dopamine have a key role in transition from alcohol social use to addiction. The medial prefrontal cortex was shown to modulate dopaminergic activity and cortisol releasing factor (CRF) release in hypothalamic and extra-hypothalamic systems. The recent advancements in non-invasive neurostimulation technologies has enabled stimulation of deeper brain regions using H-coil transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in humans. This randomized double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study aims to evaluate H-coil efficacy in stimulating the medial prefrontal cortex. Cortisolemia and prolactinemia were evaluated as effectiveness markers. Alcohol intake and craving were considered as secondary outcomes. Eighteen alcoholics were recruited and randomized into 2 homogeneous groups: 9 in the real stimulation group and 9 in the sham stimulation group. Repetitive TMS (rTMS) was administered through a magnetic stimulator over 10 sessions at 20 Hz, directed to the medial prefrontal cortex. rTMS significantly reduced blood cortisol levels and decreased prolactinemia, thus suggesting dopamine increase. Craving visual analogic scale (VAS) in treated patients decreased, as well as mean number of alcoholic drinks/day and drinks on days of maximum alcohol intake (DMAI). In the sham group there was no significant effect observed on cortisolemia, prolactinemia, mean number of alcoholic drinks/day, or drinks/DMAI. Thus, deep rTMS could be considered a potential new treatment for alcoholism.

Acute effects of restraint, shock and training in the elevated t-maze on noradrenaline and serotonin systems of the prefrontal cortex / Efectos agudos de la restricción, choque y entrenamiento en el laberinto elevado en T en los sistemas de noradrenalina y serotonina en la corteza prefrontal / Efeitos agudos da restrição, choque e treinamento no labirinto elevado em T nos sistemas de noradrenalina e serotonina no córtex pré-frontal

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) participates in cognitive functions and stress regulation. Noradrenaline (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) levels in some regions of the central nervous system are modified by acute stress. The effects depend on the type of stressor and the time elapsed between the presence of the stressor and the assessment. The aims of the present study were to assess the acute effect of different stressors on NA and 5-HT activities in the PFC and its relation with corticosterone levels. Independent groups of male Wistar rats (250-280 g) were submitted to restraint, footshock or training in the elevated T-maze (ETMT). The animals were sacrificed immediately (T0) or one hour (T1) after stress exposure. An untreated group sacrificed concurrently with treated animals was included as control. Samples of the PFC were dissected and the concentration of NA, 5-HT and their metabolites were measured by HPLC. Corticosterone levels were measured in serum. None of the treatments modified NA levels in the PFC. Animals exposed to footshock or ETMT showed significantly higher concentrations of 5-HT at T0. Restraint and footshock treatments were associated with higher corticosterone levels at T0 and T1 after the respective treatment. Taken together the results show that in the PFC, the noradrenergic and serotonergic systems, and the corticosterone levels respond in different ways to different stressors.

La corteza prefrontal (CPF) participa en las funciones cognitivas y la regulación del estrés. Las concentraciones de noradrenalina (NA) y serotonina (5-HT) en algunas regiones en el sistema nervioso central son modificadas por el estrés agudo. El efecto depende del estresor y del tiempo que transcurra entre el estresor y la evaluación. El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar el efecto agudo de diferentes estresores en la actividad de la NA y 5-HT en la CPF y su relación con los niveles de corticosterona. Grupos independientes de ratas (250-270 g) fueron sometidos a restricción, choque o entrenamiento en el laberinto elevado en T (ELET). Los animales fueron sacrificados inmediatamente (T0) o una hora (T1) después de la exposición al estrés. Un grupo no tratado, sacrificado al mismo tiempo que los animales tratados, se incluyó como control. Las muestras de la CPF fueron disecadas y la concentración de NA, 5-HT y sus metabolitos fue detectada por la técnica de HPLC. Las concentraciones de corticosterona fueron medidas en el suero. Ninguno de los tratamientos modificó las concentraciones de NA en la CPF. Al T0 los animales expuestos a choque o al ELET mostraron concentraciones de 5-HT significativamente mayores que el control. Los tratamientos de restricción y choque estuvieron asociados con altas concentraciones de corticosterona al T0 y a T1 después del tratamiento respectivo. En conjunto, los resultados mostraron que en la CPF los sistemas noradrenérgico y serotonérgico y la concentración de corticosterona responden en forma diferente a los distintos estresores.

O córtex pré-frontal (CPF) participa nas funções cognitivas e na regulação do estresse. As concentrações de noradrenalina (NA) e serotonina (5-HT) em algumas regiões do sistema nervoso central são modificadas pelo estresse agudo. O efeito depende do estressor e do tempo que transcorra entre o estressor e a avaliação. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito agudo de diferentes estressores na atividade da NA e 5-HT no PFC e sua relação com os níveis de corticosterona. Grupos independentes de ratos (250-270 g) foram submetidos a restrição, choque ou treinamento no labirinto elevado em T (ELET). Os animais foram sacrificados imediatamente (T0) ou uma hora (T1) depois da exposição ao estresse. Um grupo não tratado, sacrificado ao mesmo tempo que os animais tratados, incluiu-se como controle. As mostras do PFC foram dissecadas e a concentração de NA, 5-HT e seus metabolitos foi detectada pela técnica de HPLC. As concentrações de corticosterona foram medidas no soro. Nenhum dos tratamentos modificou as concentrações de NA no PFC. Em T0 os animais expostos a choque o ao ELET mostraram concentrações de 5-HT significativamente maiores que o controle. Os tratamentos de restrição e choque estiveram associados com altas concentrações de corticosterona em T0 e em T1 depois do tratamento respectivo. Em conjunto, os resultados mostraram que no PFC os sistemas noradrenérgico e serotonérgico e a concentração de corticosterona respondem de maneira diferente aos diferentes estressores.

[Health-related quality of life assessment in depression after low-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation]. / Qualité de vie liée à la santé dans la dépression après stimulation magnétique transcrânienne basse fréquence.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder remains one of the leading causes of disability in developed countries despite pharmacological and psychological treatments. Patients with major depression have poorer health-related quality of life than persons of the general population, or patients with chronic somatic illness. Improvement of health-related quality of life in depression is thus a pertinent treatment objective. Both high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and low-frequency rTMS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex have shown their effectiveness in medication-resistant depression. However, the Health-related Quality of Life questionnaire remains under-utilized to assess the effectiveness of rTMS in research or in a routine clinical setting. Our study aims to investigate in an open label trial the efficacy of low-frequency rTMS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on health-related quality of life and clinical outcomes in medication-resistant depression. METHODS: In a naturalistic trial, 33 unipolar and bipolar patients with medication-resistant depression were treated with daily low-frequency rTMS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for 4 weeks. Health-related quality of life was assessed using the SF-36 questionnaire. The SF-36 is a generic, self-administered, and worldwide-used questionnaire, consisting of 36 items describing eight health dimensions: physical functioning, social functioning, role-physical problems, role-emotional problems, mental health, vitality, bodily pain, and general health. Physical component summary and mental component summary scores were then obtained. Depression severity was assessed using the 21-item self-report Beck Depression Inventory. Anxiety severity was assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The SF-36, the Beck Depression Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were assessed before and after low-frequency rTMS. The effect of rTMS treatment on the SF-36 and the clinical outcome was evaluated for significance with the Wilcoxon two-tailed signed-rank test. The reliable change index (RCI) was calculated to determine clinically significant change in the eight dimension and composite scores of the SF-36 from pre-intervention to post-intervention, at the level of individual patients. Effect size (r) was then calculated, r values from 0.1 to 0.29, 0.3 to 0.49 and from 0.5 were considered as indicating small, medium and large effect sizes, respectively. Correlations between improvement in Health-related Quality of Life and improvement in the other rating scale scores were calculated using Spearman's correlation test. RESULTS: There were significant improvements of 37.6% in the mental health (P=0.018), 130 % in the role-emotional problem (P=0.045), 15.5% in the physical functioning (P=0.008), 110.6% in the role-physical problem (P=0.002), 22.4% in the bodily pain (P=0.013) dimensions, 6.1% in the Physical Component Score (P=0.043), and 22,5 % in the Beck Depression Inventory (P=0.002). Eighteen patients (54%) showed clinically significant improvement in one of the two composite scores after RCI calculation. Seven out of the eight SF-36 dimension scores and the two composite scores showed effect sizes ranging from 0.12 to 0.38, indicating small to moderate effect. Significant correlations were found between improvement in the Beck Depression Inventory and improvement in the Mental Component Score, the social functioning, the mental health, the general health, the vitality and the physical functioning dimensions. LIMITATIONS: Small sample size and non-controlled design. CONCLUSION: Low-frequency rTMS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex improves Health-related Quality of Life in unipolar and bipolar patients with medication-resistant depression. Improvement in mental health-related quality of life is significantly correlated with improvement in depressive symptoms. However, further studies with larger samples and controlled designs are needed to clarify our findings.

La activación de la corteza prefrontal durante las tareas motrices y perspectivas de diferentes imágenes visuales en los hombres y las mujeres: un estudio de la espectroscopia de reflectancia en el infrarrojo funcional (fNIRS) / Ativação do córtex pré-frontal durante tarefas motoras e perspectivas de diferentes imagens visuais em homens e mulheres: um estudo com espectroscopia por reflectância infravermelho funcional (fNIRS) / Equal prefrontal cortex activation between males and females in a motor tasks and different visual imagery perspectives: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study

The purpose of this study was to compare the prefrontal cortex (PFC) blood flow variation and time on in males and females while performing a motor task and imagery perspectives. Eighteen right handed subjects (11 males and 7 females) were volunteers to this study. All subjects went through three randomly conditions, a motor task condition (MT) in which they had to do a simple finger tap. The other conditions included practicing imagery in first and third views. During all the conditions, the fNIRS device was attached to the subject forehead to obtain the blood flow; the total time in each task which was measured with a chronometer. No difference had been found in any condition for both sexes in the PFC and time, nor for all subjects integrated in the PFC. Therefore, we conclu-de that both imageries can be used to mentally train a motor task, and probably both sexes can be benefited.

O objetivo do estudo foi comparar a variação sanguínea do córtex prefrontal (CPF) e o tempo de realização, durante uma tarefa motora e diferentes perspectivas de imagética motora em homens e mulheres. Dezoito sujeitos destros (11 homens e 7 mulheres) foram voluntários. Todos os sujeitos passaram por 3 condições randomicamente, uma tarefa motora que consistia em uma simples batida de dedos. As outras condições fora a prática de imagética motora em primeira e terceira pessoa. Durante todas as condições, um aparelho fNIRS foi acoplado a testa para obtenção do fluxo sanguíneo; e o tempo total de cada tarefa foi obtido com um cronômetro. Nenhuma diferença foi encontrada em nenhuma condição para ambos os gêneros no CPF e no tempo, bem como quanto considerados todos os sujeitos. Concluímos que ambas imagéticas podem ser usadas para treinar mentalmente uma tarefa motora e que, provavelmente, ambos os gêneros podem se beneficiar da técnica.

El propósito de este estudio fue comparar la actividad de la corteza frontal (CF) y el tiempo del realización de una tarea motora en diferentes perspectivas del entrenamiento mental. Dieciocho participantes diestros (11 hombres y 7 mujeres) fueron voluntarios en este estudio. Todos los participantes realizaram tres condiciones aleatorias: tarea motora (TM), dónde hicieron golpes con los dedos en una secuencia determinada. Las otras condiciones estaban practicando el entrenamiento mental vistas en primera y tercera persona. Durante todas las condiciones, el dispositivo fNIRS estaba unido a la frente del sujeto para obtener el flujo de sangre; el tiempo total de cada tarea se midió con un cronómetro. Ninguna diferencia se había encontrado en ninguna condición para ambos sexos y el tiempo. Por lo tanto, llegamos a la conclusión de que ambas las formas de imaginación pueden utilizar para entrenar mentalmente una tarea motora, y probablemente ambos géneros pueden ser beneficiados.